“We love teaching, but not like this”: Relocation intentions and brain pain among Nigerian teachers

Chidubem Deborah Adamu

doi:10.32674/v0dvv592

Authors

Chidubem Deborah Adamu University of Johannesburg

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.32674/v0dvv592

Keywords:

brain Pain, “Japa” syndrome, qualitative research, relocation intentions, teacher migration

Abstract

This study explores relocation intentions of Nigerian secondary school teachers and introduces "Brain Pain"—psychological distress when leaving feels necessary yet wrong. Using a phenomenological design, 10 teachers were interviewed and 12 participated in two focus groups (six public, six private) across five Nigerian states. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Perceived relocation benefits included professional development, financial stability, and dignity. Drawbacks included harming students, losing STEM teachers, credential devaluation abroad. Most affirmed relocation as a right but expressed guilt and ambivalence. Family considerations weighed heavily. Fears of starting over or visa rejection did not deter them; staying in poverty was worse. The study challenges push-pull theory by showing relocation decisions involve moral reasoning and cultural belonging, not wage differentials. Brain pain extends occupational commitment theory by showing affective commitment conflicts with low continuance commitment. Retention policies in sub-Saharan Africa must address professional dignity and moral anguish, not just salaries.

References

Adepoju, A. (2022). International migration and development in Sub-Saharan Africa. In The Routledge Handbook of African Demography. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429287213-37

Bauder, H. (2015). The international mobility of academics: A labour market perspective. International Migration, 53, 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1468-2435.2012.00783.X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2012.00783.x

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. London: SAGE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781036232078.n9

Beine, M., Docquier, F., & Rapoport, H. (2001). Brain drain and economic growth: Theory and evidence. Journal of Development Economics, 64(1), 275–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(00)00133-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(00)00133-4

Bennell, P. (2025). Dissatisfied but nowhere to go: Teacher attrition in the context of mass unemployment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 23(4), 959–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2023.2233481 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2023.2233481

Bennell, P., & Akyeampong, K. (2007). Teacher motivation in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. London: Department for International Development (DFID) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08be640f0b652dd000f9a/ResearchingtheIssuesNo71.pdf

Bense, K. (2016). International teacher mobility and migration: A review and synthesis of the current empirical research and literature. Educational Research Review, 17, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.12.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.12.001

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Conceptual and design thinking for thematic analysis. Qualitative Psychology, 9(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000196 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000196

Brock, G., & Blake, M. (2015). Debating brain drain: May governments restrict emigration? New York: Oxford University Press.

Carens, J. H. (2013). The ethics of immigration. Oxford University Press.

Carling, J., & Collins, F. (2018). Aspiration, desire and drivers of migration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(6), 909–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1384134 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1384134

Carling, J., & Schewel, K. (2018). Revisiting aspiration and ability in international migration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(6), 945–963. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1384146 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1384146

Clemens, M. A. (2014). Does development reduce migration? IZA Discussion Paper No. 8592, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), Bonn: Germany.

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

de Haas, H. (2021). A Theory of migration: The aspirations-capabilities framework. Comparative Migration Studies, 9(8), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-020-00210-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-020-00210-4

Dhandapani, S., & Kaur, K. (2026). Leading through crisis: Understanding instructional leadership and educational resilience in India. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 15(1), 163-182. https://doi.org/10.32674/306ezr71 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/306ezr71

Femi, E. (2026). Nigeria and the global teacher shortage crisis. Leadership (Nigeria), April 8, 2026. https://leadership.ng/nigeria-and-the-global-teacher-shortage-crisis/

Guest, G., Namey, E., & Chen, M. (2020). A simple method to assess and report thematic saturation in qualitative research. PLoS ONE, 15(5), e0232076. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232076

Human Rights Watch. (2025). Nigeria: events of 2025. In World Report 2026. New York: Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2026/country-chapters/nigeria

Ingersoll, R. M., Merrill, E., Stuckey, D., & Collins, G. (2018). Seven trends: The transformation of the teaching force. CPRE Research Reports. Retrieved from https://repository.upenn.edu/cpre_researchreports/108

International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030 and UNESCO. (2024). Global report on teachers: addressing teacher shortages and transforming the profession. Paris: UNESCO. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/global-report-teachers-addressing-teacher-shortages-and-transforming-profession?

Kalindi, S. C. (2015). Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Edited by James D. Wright, 7: 198–209. Oxford: Elsevier. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92148-2

Kanyesigye, M. R. (2026). Rethinking brain drain in Africa: Factors driving the exodus of the highly educated and the role of higher education in reversing the trend. Migration and Development 15(1), 120–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/21632324251352312 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21632324251352312

Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2015). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Lawal, I. (2025). Nigerian lecturers among least paid in Africa, says Ex-VC. The Guardian (Nigeria), December 25, 2025. https://guardian.ng/education/nigerian-lecturers-among-least-paid-in-africa-says-ex-vc/?

Lee, E. S. 1966. A theory of migration. Demography, 3, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(85)90062-8

Litz, B. T., Stein, N., Delaney, E., Lebowitz, L., Nash, W. P., Silva, C., & Maguen, S. (2009). Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: A preliminary model and intervention strategy. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 695-706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.003

Maharjan, B. ., Sunar, P. K. ., Dahal, N., Pant, B. P., & Manandhar, N. K. (2024). Connecting the dots: Teachers’ reflective practices for developing self-efficacy, emancipation, and empowerment. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 14(2), 66-89. https://doi.org/10.32674/dyp4kv17 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/dyp4kv17

Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2016). Understanding the burnout experience: Recent research and its implications for psychiatry. World Psychiatry, 15, 103–111. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20311

Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1(1), 61–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-Z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-Z

Meyer, J. P., Stanley, D. J., Herscovitch, L., & Topolnytsky, L. (2002). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: A meta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61(1), 20–52. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1842 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1842

Mohamed, A., Dasoo, N., & Israel, H. (2024). South African expatriate teachers in the Gulf Arab States: Push and pull factors for leaving. Migration and Development, 13(2), 274–288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/21632324241306845

Mulkeen, A. (2010). Teachers in Anglophone Africa: Issues in teacher supply, training, and management. The World Bank: Washington, DC. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-8053-6

Nguyen, T., Nguyen, A., Tran, A., Vu, L., & Lu, O. (2026). Job–education mismatch and wage penalties: Evidence from graduates in educational science and teacher education in Vietnam. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 15(4), 221-248. https://doi.org/10.32674/5pn56353 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/5pn56353

Oberman, K. (2011). Immigration, global poverty and the right to stay. Political Studies, 59, 253–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2011.00889.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2011.00889.x

Ojo, S. S., Ayesoro, S. A., & Peter, D. I. (2025). Underpaid and overworked: The challenges of private schools’ teachers in Ado-Ekiti Metropolis, Nigeria. Annals of Management and Organization Research, 7(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.35912/amor.v7i1.2477 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35912/amor.v7i1.2477

Opoku, P. M., Nketsia, W., Belbase, S., Side, A. S., Jiya, A. N., & Gemeda, F. T. (2025). A cross-national study of teacher retention and job satisfaction in Sub-Saharan Africa. Preventing school failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 69(2), 137–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2024.2361874 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2024.2361874

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2023). Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/813116/

Padhan, G. (2026). Exploring the school leaders’ sense of school belongingness through systematic grounded theory. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 15(5), 269-298. https://doi.org/10.32674/tfm64096 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/tfm64096

Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2022). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: theory, method and research (2nd ed). London: SAGE. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0000259-000

Stanczyk, L. (2016). Managing skilled migration. Ethics & Global Politics, 9(1), 33502. https://doi.org/10.3402/egp.v9.33502 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3402/egp.v9.33502

Stilz, A. (2016). Is there an unqualified right to leave? In Sarah Fine, and Lea Ypi (eds), Migration in Political Theory: The Ethics of Movement and Membership Oxford University Press: UK. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199676606.003.0004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199676606.003.0004

Shaoan, M. M. R., Namanyane, T., Feng, M., & Arif, M. (2025). A systematic literature review on the importance of teacher recruitment and retention in global educational reform. Frontiers in Education 9, 1447752. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1447752 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1447752

Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC). n.d. 2022/2023 National Personnel Audit (NPA) Report. Abuja, Nigeria: Universal Basic Education Commission. https://ubec.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2024/2022-NPA-REPORT.pdf?

Van Manen, M. (2014). Phenomenology of practice: Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological research and writing. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315422657 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315422657